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PREHISTORIC PERIOD:
The Prehistory is divided into 4 periods or ages.
·
Paleolithic Period
(or) Old stone Age
·
Mesolithic age (or) Late stone age
·
Neolithic age (or) the new stone age
·
Chalcolithic age
|
Shall
we look into this one after the other? Let us move ahead.
PALEOLITHIC PERIOD:
ü This
is also called Old Stone Age.
ü The
word Paleolithic was coined by an archeologist John Lubbock (England) in the
year 1865.
ü Palaios
means ‘Old’ and Lithos means ‘Stone’.
ü The
earliest traces of human existence in India go back to 4, 00,000 and 2, 00,000
BC.
ü This
is found by the large number of stone tools present in SOAN valley (Pakistan) and in south India (around Chennai).
ü The
most commonly used tool was FLINT.
(Flint is a mineral from Quartz).
ü The
Flint was split into flakes or blades for better usage.
ü These
tools served for
·
Skinning the animals.
·
Cutting the flesh.
·
Splitting bones.
ü The
people during this period were food
gatherers. (Complete dependence on nature for the food).
ü Later
people of this age learnt to control fire.
ü What
about clothing?
·
Animal skin
·
Big leaves
·
Barks of the trees are
used as cloths.
ü Towards
the end of Paleolithic period the modern human being (Or) Homo sapiens appeared.
ü The
Homo sapiens first appeared around 36,000 BC.
HOMO SAPIENS:
ü
The earliest form of man.
ü
The first great ape.
ü
The Latin meaning is “Wise man or
Knowing man”.
|
MESOLITHIC AGE:
ü This
age is also called the late Stone Age.
ü This
age is also Middle Stone Age.
ü This
is the intermediate age in the Stone Age culture.
ü The
term Mesolithic was first used by John Lubbock in the year 1865.
ü Mesos
means ‘middle’ and lithos means ‘stone’.
ü This
age began around 8000 BC.
ü This
age continued up to 4000 BC.
ü The
tools that were used during this period were called Microliths. (Pointed or
Crescent blades).
ü The
Mesolithic sites found in Chotanagpur plateau in the central India.
ü Bhimbetka
rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh is considered to be the
Mesolithic site.
ü The
sites also found along the river Krishna basin in South.
ü Plant
cultivation began during the Mesolithic age.
ü During
this age the food collection has started.
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NEOLITHIC AGE:
ü This
age is also called New Stone Age.
ü This
age began around 4000 BC.
ü The
term Neolithic was first used by John Lubbock in the year 1865.
ü Neo
means ‘New’ and lithos means ‘Stone’.
ü The
Neolithic sites were located in the North-West region and Deccan region.
ü The
people of this age domesticated animals like dog, goat and sheep.
ü Dog,
Goat and Sheep are the first animals to be domesticated.
ü The
earliest (first) cereals grown were Wheat and Barley.
ü The
people of this age started sedentary (settled) life.
ü This
age witnessed the beginning of formation of villages and communities.
ü Digging
stick was used as tool for digging purpose.
ü A
sickle used for harvesting.
ü An
axe used for cutting trees.
ü A
quern and Mortar use for grinding grains.
ü The
people of this age used ochre-colored pottery.
ü Pottery
was used to store food grains and storing liquids.
ü Wheel
was the most important discovery of this age.
ü Towards
the end of Neolithic period use of the metals began.
CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD:
ü The
period of this age is 1800 to 1000 BC.
ü Chalco
means ‘Copper’ and lithos means ‘Stone”.
ü This
is a period between Neolithic and Bronze age.
ü The
people lead a settled life.
ü The
people used Copper, bronze and stone tools during this period.
ü Brahmagiri
near Mysore (Karnataka) and Navada Toli (On the Narmada River) are chalcolithic
sites.
ü Mehgarh
in Baluchistan of Pakistan is an important site of Neolithic age.
ü Mehgarh
is located near Bolan Pass (In West Pakistan 120 km away from Pakistan border) to
the west of Indus River.
ANCIENT
URBAN CIVILIZATIONS:
ü There were four
important urban civilizations.
·
Egypt
·
Mesopotamia
·
South Asia (Indus Valley
Civilization)
·
China.
ü Out of these the largest was Indus Valley
Civilization.
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION:
ü This
is also called Harappan civilization.
ü The
Indus Valley civilization period is considered to be between 2700 – 1700 BC.
ü The
civilization spread over the whole Sind, Baluchistan, whole of Punjab, Northern
Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat.
ü Harappa
was the first city to be excavated in 1920’s.
ü Marshall
and R D Bannerji were behind these excavations.
ü In
the year 1968 Sir More Time Wheeler said that the Indus valley Civilization was
fully developed.
ü The
idea of civilization probably came from Mesopotamia (This is mostly Iraq area
and parts of Iran, Syria and Turkey).
ü The
most important cities of Indus Valley Civilization are
·
Harappa
·
Mohenjo-Daro.
ü The
other important cities of Indus Valley Civilization are
·
Ropar - Chandigarh
·
Lothal - Ahmadabad
·
Kalibangan - Rajasthan
·
Kot Doji - Sind
·
Chanhu-daro - Sind
·
Dholavira - Kutch (Gujarat)
·
Banwali - Hissar (Haryana)
·
Surkatoda - Gujarat
·
Sutkagendor - Makran coast (Pakistan and Iran
border)
ü Harappa-Kalibangan-Mohenjadaro
represented the heart of Harappan civilization.
ü The
most remarkable feature of the Harappan civilization was its urbanization.
ü Each
city was divided into a citadel (fortress) are where the essential institutions
were located.
ü The
people lived in the lower areas.
ü The
evidence of agriculture in Indus Valley Civilization came from a place called Mehrgarh
near Bolan Pass.
ü The
people in this area were growing Wheat and Barley.
ü Varieties
of painted pottery were found.
ü The
people of Indus valley Civilization also used Seals and Copper objects.
ü The
evidence of well developed culture was seen at Amri (Located in Sindh province
of Pakistan).
ü Houses
of stone or mud brick were also seen.
ü These
people also constructed granaries.
ü Thin
pottery was identified, on which animal motifs such as humped Bull were seen.
ü Brick
making was a large scale industry.
ü The
town planning was rectangular in shape.
ü The
town planning is the unique feature of the Civilization.
ü The
drainage system is one of the impressive achievements.
ü A
kind of Municipal organization was existing.
ü The
houses were constructed with kuccha bricks and not with stones.
ü The
bath rooms and drainage built with Pukka bricks and made waterproof by adding
Gypsum.
ü The
people of Harappan civilization cultivated Wheat, Barley, Peas and Dates.
ü They
also cultivated Sesame and Mustard for oil.
ü The
Harappans were earliest people to grow cotton.
ü There
was no practice of canal irrigation.
ü The
Harappans use toothed harrow for ploughing.
ü Sheep,
Goat, Humped Cattle, Buffalo and Elephant were domesticated.
ü Camel
was also reared.
ü Horse
was not known to the Harappans.
ü Deer
was used as a game. (Hunting, probably for food).
ü In
Amri (Sind province of Pakistan) instance of Indian Rhinoceros was reported.
ü There
were proves of Terracotta boats.
ü There
was no evidence of coins.
ü The
system of weights and measurements was existed.
ü Cubes
of agate (Micro crystalline variety of Silica) were employed for weighing
purpose.
ü For
length measurement strips of shell that are un shrinkable in hot and cold were
used.
ü Seals
were used for stamping goods. (This was seen in Mesopotamia).
ü The
Mesopotamian literature mentioned the merchants of Ur (A place in Iraq) carried
trade with foreign merchants.
ü Tilmun
– Island of Bahrain
ü Magan
- Oman
ü Meluhha
- India
(Indus region of Saurashtra)
ü The
Harappans were aware of mining metal working.
ü The
Harappans did not leave any inscriptions describing their system of government.
ü At
places like Sukkur the axes, knives; spearheads were produced in large scale.
ü Temples
were not found in the Indus Valley Civilization.
ü Mother
goddess was made up of clay.
ü Mother
goddess was worshiped for fertility.
ü A
seated figure of male god was found. (Probably Pashupati Mahadeva).
ü Symbols
of Phallus (Male sex organ) and female sex organs made in stone were
worshipped.
ü Pipal
tree was treated as sacred.
ü The
Bull was worshipped.
ü Some
Indus people buried their dead in graves.
ü A
large cemetery was seen in Harappa and in other areas people practiced urn
burial.
ü The
graves contained house hold pottery, ornaments and mirrors.
ü During
burial the head was pointed towards North.
Let
us know more about each of the important cities in the Indus Valley
Civilization.
HARAPPA:
ü This
is the first site to be excavated in the Indus Valley Civilization.
ü The
city of Harappa located on the banks of river Ravi.
ü This
is the premier city of civilization.
ü The
Citadel was surrounded by a brick wall.
ü A
number of Granaries were found in Harappa (striking feature).
ü A
large cemetery (burial place) was seen in Harappa.
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MOHENJO-DARO:
ü This
is the largest city of Indus valley civilization.
ü This
is located on the banks of the river Indus.
ü The
local name of Mohenjo-Daro was “Mound of Dead”.
ü The
people here build and rebuild houses at the same location.
ü The
Citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. (Like Harappa).
ü In
citadel area Great Bath is the most striking structure. (Place for important
rituals).
ü To
the west of Great bath granaries were also found.
ü To
the other side of Great bath a long building was located. This was used as
residence for high officials.
ü Assembly
hall was another significant building in Mohenjo-Daro.
ü A
figure of dancing girl was recovered from Mohenjo-Daro.
ü The
dancing girl figure was made up of Bronze.
ü A
Bearded Head in stone was recovered from Mohenjo-Daro.
ü Mohenjo-Daro
had a public bath worked by an indigenous hydraulic system. (This is a system
of force applying at one point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible
fluid).
ü Seals
representing marks of authority of traders were found in Mohenjo-Daro.
KALIBANGAN:
ü Kalibangan
was excavated in the year 1960.
ü This
is located on the southern banks of the river Ghaggar.
ü Both
the citadel and lower city were surrounded by a wall. (Unlike Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro).
ü Fire
altars were discovered in Kalibangan. (Also in Lothal).
ü (Fire altar
is a sacrificial fire offered to God in almost all religious places). This is
the worship of God Agni.
ü There
were indications of usage of wooden plough.
ü Kalibangan
shows the writing was boustrophedon. (This is a bi-directional text, i.e. from
right to left and left to right).
LOTHAL:
ü This
is located on the coast of Gulf of Cambay.
ü A
vast brick built dockyard was discovered here.
ü This
is an important sea port for trade with the West Asia.
ü Fire
altars were discovered in Lothal. (Also in Kalibangan).
ü Rice
was first cultivated in Lothal in 1800 BC.
SUTKAGENDOR:
ü This
is located near to the Makran coast.
ü The
town has a citadel surrounded by a stone wall built for defense.
HOW INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
DECLINED?
ü There
are various theories regarding the decline.
ü The
decline suddenly occurred between 1800 and 1700 BC.
ü One
theory says that the people of Indus Valley Civilization were destroyed by invasion
barbaric tribes.
ü Other
theory says that the Aryans the next settlers destroyed the Indus Valley
Civilization.
ü Floods
and earth quakes may be a reason for the decline.
ü Change
of course of rivers. Mohenjo-Daro was destroyed by the course of river Indus
away from it.
ü Ecological
factors are the other reasons for the decline of Indus Valley Civilization.
IRON AGE: (**********)
In India the Iron Age began during 1000
BC.
THE VEDIC AGE AND ARYANS:
ü Do you know there
are four Vedas?
·
Rig Veda
·
Sama Veda
·
Yajur Veda
·
Atharva Veda
ü These Vedas are
believed to belong to the period of 1500 – 500 BC.
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ü These
Vedas are thought to have been composed by the Aryans.
ü The
Ayrans have migrated to Indian subcontinent from West Asia. (It is a belief).
ü The
Aryans had a common home. (Today’s Iran)
ü The
scholars have come to a conclusion because there are similarities in the
language used in Rigveda and Avesta.
Avesta:
ü
This is the oldest Iranian Text.
ü
This is older to the Rigveda.
|
ü The
common racial identity of the Aryans has now been proved false.
ü The
Historians believe the common linguistic identity.
ü The
Vedic period can be divided into
·
Early Vedic period
And
·
Later Vedic period.
ü The
year 1000 BC is considered to be the year of demarcation.
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THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD:
ü Rig
Veda or Rig Veda Samhitha belongs to this period.
ü This
is the oldest book of Vedic age.
ü Rig
Veda comprises of 10 Mandals (books).
ü The
books from II to VII are the oldest.
ü The
books I, VIII, IX and X are the considered to be the late additions.
ü The
geographical areas that mentioned in Rig Veda are those drained by the Western
tributaries of Indus.
ü The
eastern limit was formed by the rivers Yamuna and Ganges.
ü In
this area the rivers Saraswati, Drasavati, Indus and the 5 tributaries of Indus
have formed the core area.
ü The
early Vedic society appears to have been pastoral.
ü Iron
and copper technology was not used during early Vedic period.
ü Usage
of Stone tools was mentioned in Rig Veda.
ü Shifting
cultivation was practiced during this period.
ü Individual
land ownership was absent.
ü It
was community or group land.
ü There
was no reference to slaves (hired laborers).
ü Weaving
was a domestic activity under the control of women.
ü Barter
system was present.
ü Cattle
were used as a means of exchange.
ü The
battle of 10 kings was mentioned in Rig Veda.
ü The
Bharatas, the Purus, the Vadus, the Druhyus, the Anus, the Turvasus were some
of the tribes that took part in the Battle of 10 kings.
ü The
Bharata tribe was led by Sudasa.
ü The
reason for the Battle of kings was the division of water of the river Ravi.
ü The
four fold Varna system was absent.
ü Veyy
less number of references to Brahmans, Kshatriya and only one reference to
Sudra.
ü Child
marriage was unknown during early Vedic period.
ü The
priest acted as the mediator between the clansmen and the God.
ü Purusasukta
hymn is mentioned in the 10th book of Rig Veda.
ü In
Purusasukta it is mentioned that Brahmana, Kshatriya or Rajanya, Vaisya and
Sudra took birth from Mouth, Arms, Thighs and feet of the Purushasva (Cosmic
man).
·
Brahmana - Mouth
·
Kshtriya - Arms
·
Vaisya - Legs
·
Sudra - Feet
|
ü These
names signified the four castes.
ü There
are so many terms
that are mentioned in the Hymns (Prayer or Religious Song) of Rig Veda.
* Let us try to learn
some of them.
·
Pasu - Goats, Sheep, Horses
·
Gomat - Wealthy
person
·
Gaviti - Battle
(for cattle)
·
Gopati - Raja
or Chief (Protector of cattle)
·
(Cattle is the main
reason for disputes between various groups, the chief or Raja is expected to protect
the cattle and not land).
·
Rajanya - Raja
or Chief
·
Purohit - Priest
·
Duhitri - Daughter
·
Godhuli - Measurement
of time
·
Gavyuti - Distance
·
Gana - Assembly
·
Sabha - Assembly
·
Samiti - Assembly
·
Parishad - Assembly
·
Dana - Gifts (Specially given to priests)
·
Dakshina - Gifts
·
Vis - People
·
Yava - Barley (This is the only grain that is
mentioned in Rig Veda).
·
Langala - Plough
·
Sira - Plough
·
Phala - Ploughshare
·
Khanitra - Hoe
·
Datra - Sickle
·
Parasue - Axe
·
Samudra - Mouth
of Indus River
·
Bali - Tax
·
Kula - Family
·
Purusasukha - Cosmic
Man
·
Dasa - Slaves
·
Dasyus - Rich
·
Yagna - Sacrifice
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ü A
number of gods were worshipped during early Vedic period.
ü Most
of the Gods were masculine (male Gods).
ü Very
few female Gods were also worshipped.
ü As
there were so many Gods, there was Polytheism (Worshipping many Gods).
ü Animal
sacrifice was existing to invoke gods for boons.
ü The
God Indra was the most important God during early Vedic period.
ü During
early Vedic period the Indra was considered as the God of strength.
ü Indra
was invoked to destroy the enemies.
ü Indra
was the god of rain and thunder.
ü Agni
was the God of Fire.
ü Agni
was the intermediary between the heaven and the earth.
ü Agni
was also intermediary between God and man.
ü The
purifying nature of fire is symbolized Agni.
ü Varuna
was the God of water.
ü Yama
was the God of Death.
ü The
Ashwins were the twin Gods of heaven.
ü The
Dyaus was the sky God.
ü The
Mitra was the God of Light.
ü The
Prajanya was the God of rain.
ü The
Prithvi was the Goddess earth.
ü The
Aditi was the mother Goddess.
THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD:
ü This
period is roughly between 1000 BC and 600 BC.
ü The
X mandala/book of Rig Veda was assigned to this period.
ü The
Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda were assigned to this period.
ü The
Sama Veda is a book of prayers and chants. These are from Rig Veda.
ü The
Yajur Veda elaborates the rituals.
ü The
Atharva Veda contains the folk traditions and represents the popular religion.
ü These
Samhitas are followed by Brahmanas.
ü The
Brahmanas explained social and religious aspects of the rituals.
ü Later
appeared Aranyakas and Upanishads.
ü During
later Vedic period for clearing lands the usage of socketed iron axe found in
Noh. (During early Vedic period people practiced the shifting cultivation).
ü Importance
of agriculture was increased.
ü The
ploughs were driven by Oxen (Agriculture).
ü Iron
ploughshare was found at Jakhera (Nagaur district of Rajasthan).
ü The
manufacturing of glass was also known during this period.
ü Yava
(Barley) continued to be important.
ü Vrihi
(Rice) assumed importance as a staple diet.
ü Godhuma
(Wheat) was relatively insignificant.
ü Some
pulses were mentioned in the literature.
ü Mudga
– Moong
ü Mass
– Urad
ü Syamaka
– Millet
ü Tila
– Sesame
ü The
term ‘Griha’ was used for household.
ü Vaisya
was the producing class in the society.
ü Bali
(tax) became less voluntary and obtained through force.
ü Yajnas
(Sacrifices) such as Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Ashvamedha became significant.
ü Vidhis
(Rules) for performing each sacrifice were formulated.
ü The
rules differed according to the needs of Yajamana (Patron).
ü The
word ‘Nishka’ was used for Gold ornaments.
ü The
word ‘Satamana’ was used for a weight of Gold/Silver.
ü The
word ‘Nagar’ was used for Towns.
ü Varna
system gained importance.
ü The
Brahmanas who were one of the 17 kinds of priests gained importance and became
synonymous with the priesthood.
ü The
Brahmans, the Kshatriyas and the Vysyas performed the sacrifices.
ü Sudras
were denied of performing sacrifices.
ü New
deities (Gods) gained importance.
ü The
God Rudra became important.
ü During
this period un-touch-ability was absent.
ü But
women were increasingly subordinated.
ü The
institution of ‘Gotra’ appeared during the late Vedic period.
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What is Gotra?
ü
This signifies the descent
(origin) from a common ancestor.
ü
The system is to avoid the
marriage between the couples belonging to the same gotra.
|
ü Initially
the tribal endogamy was practiced. This is a system of marriage within the
tribe, in order to maintain the purity of the tribe.
ü Later
full fledged gotra exogamy was started. This is a system of marriage outside
the gotra.
ü The
Ashrama
·
Brahmacharya (studentship,
5 to 24 years)
·
Grihasta (households,
(25 to 49 years)
·
Vanaprastha (partial
retirement, 50 to 74 years)
·
Sanyasa (complete
retirement, 75 to 100 years).
ü Upanayan
was the prerogative of the upper classes.
ü There
was the emergence of janapadas.
ü The
term ‘Janapada’ used for the area of tribal settlements.
ü The
Rajanyas of Rig Veda became Kshatriyas (Those who hold power over dominions).
ü Bali
and Bhaga assumed the forms of regular tributes and taxes.
ü In
North Bihar a republican form of government was evolved by the Shakyas and the
lichchhavis.
ü The
Gods Indra and Agni lost significance during later Vedic period.
ü Prajapati
was considered to the creator gained significance.
ü Rudra
(in Rig Veda Rudra was a minor Deity (God)) became important.
ü The
God Vishnu was considered as the preserver and protector of the people.
ü Pushan
(the diety who protected the cattle in the early Vedic period) became the God
of the Shudras.
ü Pushan
was invoked to bring harmony and safe deliveries of babies.
ü The
Ashwins were entrusted with the protection of agriculture and killing of rats.
ü The
Savitri was summoned (invoked or prayed) to fix a place for a new house.
ü The
Surya was invoked to remove demons.
ü Idolatry
was noticed during the later Vedic period.
IDOLATRY
means worship of Idol.
This may be in
the form of physical object or image.
|
ü The
doctrines (Believes, Teachings or Principles)
·
Karma
·
Maya
·
Transmigration
·
Identity of Individual
soul with the Universal soul
·
Mukti
ü These
were first found in Upanishads.
ü These
were accepted as Hindu tenets. (Tenet is a principle on which belief or theory is
based).
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What is Sruti and Smriti ?
These two are considered to be the texts that are used to establish the
rule of law.
Sruti means hearing or listening.
Smriti means ‘that which is remembered’.
Sruti is a direct revelation of Cosmic sound of truth heard by ancient
Rishies.
Hence Sruti is a divine origin.
Smriti is a writings of remembering what is heard.
Sruti is considered to the first source of authority for dharma.
Smriti is considered to be the second source of authority for dharma.
SMRITI LITERATURE:
ü The
word “Smriti” means ‘That which is remembered’.
ü This
is entirely a part of post Vedic Sanskrit literature.
ü The
Smriti literature was composed after Vedas around 500 BC.
ü The
Smriti literature includes
·
Vedanga
·
Shad-Darsana
·
Itihasa
·
Purana
·
Upaveda
·
Tantra
·
Agama
·
Upanga
|
VEDANGA:
ü These
are six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the
Vedas.
ü The
Vedangas are again divided into
·
Kalpa – The ritual
action
v The
Kaipa includes the Dharma Shastras/ Legal Codes.
·
Jyotisha or Astronomy
·
Siksha or Phonetics
·
Chanda or Meter
·
Nirukta or Etymology
·
Vyakarana or Grammar
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SHAD-DARSHANA:
ü These
denote the six orthodox schools of Hindu Philosophy.
·
Nyaya
·
Vaisheshika
·
Sankhya
·
Yoga
·
Mimamsa
·
Vedanta
|
ITIHASA:
ü The
Ramayana and the Mahabharata are considered to be the Itihasas.
ü These
are the legendary works.
·
Ramayana
·
Mahabharata
|
PURANAS:
ü These
are considered to be the extensions of Itihasas.
ü These
are the late compilations of legendary ancient legenda.
UPA-VEDAS:
ü These
are the auxiliary Vedas that deal with Medicine, Music, Architecture, Eroticism,
Archery etc.
ü These
are associated with the Vedas.
v Ayurveda - Atharva
Veda
v Arthaveda - Atharva Veda
v Dhanurveda - Yajurveda
v Gandharva-Veda
(songs) - Samaveda
TANTRA:
ü These
contain the writings of saka and Shaivite sects.
AGAMA:
ü These
contain the scriptures of
·
Vaishnavites
·
Shaivites
·
Saktas.
UPANGAS:
ü This
is the name given for a collection of treatise.
ü These
are associated with the philosophical systems of
v Nyaya
v Mimamsa
v Dharma
Sutras
v Puranas
v Tantras
EPICS:
ü There
are two great epics in India.
·
Mahabharata
·
Ramayana
MAHABHARATA:
ü This
is the longest of all the World epics.
ü This
was written by sage Vyasa.
ü The
sage Vyasa composed the Mahabharata in 24,000 verses.
ü This
is originally written in Prakrit.
ü Later
it was elaborated into Sanskrit.
ü This
consists of 8000 (Eight Thousand) Slokas.
ü The
Mahabharata consists of 18 parvas.
ü The
Mahabharata edited into the present form during 184 BC to 320 AD.
RAMAYANA:
ü This
is originally written in Prakrit.
ü This
was rewritten in Sasnskrit during 1st and 2nd centuries.
ü This
was written by the sage Valmiki.
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MAHAJANAPADAS: (the large territorial states)
ü The
Janapadas and Mahajanapadas were referred in Brahmanas and Upanishads that were
composed since 800 BC.
ü The
janapaadas and Mahajanapadas mention the settlements of agricultural
communities.
ü This
is also mentioned in Buddhist texts like
ü Vinaya
Pitaka (rules of the order)
ü Sutta
Pitaka (Collection of Buddha’s ceremons)
ü Abhidhamma
Pitaka (a treatise on Metaphysical tell us about the preachers, rich, poor, towns
and villages of that period.
** The Jatakas
(stories of Buddha’s previous birth) are part of Sutta Pitaka.
|
ü Various
geographical areas like Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur, Kosambi, Ujjaini, Sravasthi,
Vaishali are mentioned in various texts. (Proved by archeological evidences).
ü A
deluxe pottery called NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware) of 6 BC
was also revealed.
ü Some
of the Janapadas of the Vedic period developed into Mahajanapadas by the 6th
century BC.
ü As
a result of diffusion of Iron technology, the agricultural communities expanded.
ü During
Vedic period the agriculture land was owned by the tribe.
ü BY
6th Century BC Gahapahi emerged. (This signifies the disintegration
of joint ownership of land and the emergence of big individual land owners).
ü GAHAPATI:
An individual household which owned the land.
ü During this time a Brahman is said to have
more land. (Used 500 ploughs to cultivate the land).
ü The
Gahapati land was cultivated by
·
Dasa (Slaves)
·
Karmakaras (Hired
labourers)
·
Shudras ( people
captured during the war were made slaves)
ü By
the end of 6th century BC trade and merchandise became an
independent sphere of economic activity.
ü The
Mahajanapadas (large territorial states) came into existence by incorporating
the Janapadas which were previously autonomous.
ü Kashi
and Sakya which were janapadas merged to form into Kosala Mahajanapada.
ü This
includes thousands of villages and some cities.
ü Anguttara
Nikaya (Buddhist text) that is a part of Sutta Pitaka gives a list of 16
Mahajanapadas.
ü The
Ang, Magadh, Vajji, Malla, Kashi, Kosala and Vatsa (total 7) are located in the
middle gangetic valley.
ü Note:
Of all these the Magadh was the most powerful kingdom.
·
Middle gangetic is
the rice growing area.
·
Upper gangetic is the
wheat growing area.
|
ü The
production of rice exceeded the production of Wheat.
ü The
rice producing area is a densely populated area.
ü The
Mahajanapadas like Magadh have easy access to the resources like Iron ore.
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MAGADHA:
ü The
Capital of Magadh was Pataliputra.
ü The
Pataliputra is situated on the confluence of many rivers like Ganges, Gandak,
Son and Pun Pun.
ü The
Magadh is located in the vicinity of large Alluvial soil.
ü The
Magadh kingdom was victorious in the battle between four kingdoms
·
Kosala
·
Vajji
·
Avanthi
·
Magadh
ü The
iron rich areas are located near to Magadh and Avanti enabled them to produce
good weapons for warfare.
ü Avanti
was the most serious competitor of Magadh. (Avanti was also located near to the
iron rich areas.
BIMBISARA:
ü Under
the rule of Bimbisara the Magadh emerged as the controller of the middle
gangetic plains.
ü (Note:
Bimbisara belongs to Haryanka dynasty. He was the contemporary of
Buddha).
ü Bimbisara acquired Anga and it was kept under
the viceroyalty of Ajatashatru. (Ajatashatru was the son of Bimbisara).
ü Bimbisara’s
first wife was the daughter of the King Kosala and the sister of Prasenjit.
ü Through
this marriage Bimbisara got Kashi village in the form of dowry.
ü Bimbisara’s
second wife Chellana (Lichchhavi Princes) from Vaishali.
ü Bimbisara’s
third wife was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab.
ü Bimbisara
was starved to death by his son Ajatashatru around 492 BC.
AJATASHATRU:
ü Ajatashatru
was the successor of Bimbisara and came to throne.
ü Ajatashatru
ruled Magadh from 492 BC to 460 BC.
ü Ajatashatru
gained complete control over Kasi and broke the relations with his maternal
uncle Prasenjit, the king of kosala.
ü Ajatashatru
defeated Vajji confederation after a long period of 16 years of war.
ü During
the rule of the Ajatashatru KAshi, Vaishali, capital of Vajji confedararion
were added to Magadh.
ü The
plan of annexing Avanti did not materialize.
UDAYIN:
ü Ajatasatru
was succeded by Udayin.
ü During
his rule the Magadh kingdom extended up to Himalayan range in the North and
Chhota Nagpur hills in the South.
ü He
built a fort on the confluence of ganga and son.
ü After
Udayin his four proved to be ineffective and were thrown out by the people of
Magadh.
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SHISHUNAGA:
ü After
all the 4 sons have been replaced by the people of Magadh, the viceroy of
Benaras Shishunaga has come to the crown.
ü His
biggest achievement of Shishunaga was that the destruction of Avanti with its
capital at Ujjain.
ü This
is the end of the rivalry between Magadh and the Avanti.
ü Avanti
became the part of the Magadhan empire and remained with the Magadh till the
end of Mouryan rule.
ü This
rule was of short duration and gave way to Nanda rule.
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NANDAS:
ü Nandas
inherited large kingdoms of the Magadh.
ü These
are considered as the first empire builders.
ü During
Nanda period only Alexander invaded India. (326 BC).
ü Nandas
had contact with Deccan and South India.
ü Nandas
controlled some parts in Kalinga (Odisha). It was indicated in Hatigumpha
inscription of King Kharavela who ruled Orissa (Odisha) from the middle of the
1st century BC.
ü Nine
Nanda kings have ruled.
ü The
Nanda Empire had a very vast army. (This is described in Greek classical
writings).
ü
ü It
came to an end by 321. BC.
ü By
the end the Nanda kings have become very unpopular and the advantage was taken
by Mouryan kings.
ü The
advantage was taken by Chandra Gupta Maurya.
ü The
architecture of the Magadhan Empire is the first of any contemporary period.
ü The
palaces of Pataliputra were built by timber and brick. (This was admired by
Megasthenese).
MAURYAS:
ü The
architecture of Magadhan empire was the first of which we have any contemporary
records.
ü The
Cyclopean walls of Rajgriha and the timber and brick palaces of Pataliputra,
won the admiration of Megashanese (Greek scholar).
ü It
was also mentioned in the buddhist works.
ü Evidence
of burnt brick is also seen.
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PERSIAN
INVASION:
ü In
519 BC, the Persian or Achaemenian (Modern Iran) emperor Darius annexed Punjab.
ALEXANDER:
ü The
king of Macedonia.
ü Crossed
Hindukush mountains after subduing the Achemenian and consolidating his gains
in the Persian empire.
ü Crossed
Indus in the river 326 BC.
ü He
encounterd 2 powerful kings Ambi (Taxila near modern Rawalpindi)) and porus.
ü Ambi
sent a mission to Alexander offering him to help if his own kingdom was spared.
ü Porus
decided to oppose him. The battle of Hydespes was fought on the river Jhelum.
ü Porus
was defeated after a long fight but appointed as the representative of
Alexander.
ü Alexander
decided to go back after his admiral NEARCHUS took the fleet home.
ü Alexander
died in 323 BC in Babylonia.
ü PIETHON
was the last king to return from India from Gangdhara in 316 BC.
ü But
Selucus Nicator returned in 305 BC.
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JAINISM:
ü Rishaba
was the first Jain Thirthankara. Rishaba means bull.
ü Parshva
was the 23rd Jain Thirthankara.
ü Mahavira
was the 24th one.
ü Vardhamana
Mahavira was born in 540 BC, in a village near Vaishali in North Bihar.
ü His
father was the head of a famous kshayatriya clan and his mother was a
Lichchhavi princess.
ü At
30, he became ascetic.
ü 42,
he attained a state called Nirvana (Cessation) or Kaivalya (Omniscience). Ie a
realization of one’s self.
ü He
was acclaimed as Thirthankara (forth finder), Kailvalin (supreme omniscient),
Jina (Conqueror) and Arhant (Blessed one).
ü He
was called Mahavira (Great hero).
ü Died
at the age of 72 in 468 BC. At pavapuri near rajgir.
ü Mahavira
recognised the teachings of early 23 Tirthankaras aboyt which practically
nothing is known.
ü Only
Parshava was historical personage.
ü Mahavira
was recognized as the historical founder of Jainism.
ü Mahavira
told that they should follow 3 rights. (3 jewels or 3 ratnas)
ü Right
Knowledge – is the knowledge of Jain creed.
ü Right
faith – is the belief in what he knows.
ü Right
action – is the practice of 5 vows. Non-injury to living organisms, truth,
non-stealing, not to own property and to practice chastity.
ü First
4 given by parshava and 5th added by mahavira.
ü According
to jains Vedas are not realiable and should be disregarded.
ü Reality
in Jainism is characterized by anekatva or plurality or multistudiness and is
beyond the scope of finite minds to know all aspects of a thing.
ü Jains
believed in the dualistic principle of Jiva (eternal soul) and ajiva ( eternal
element) everywhere.
ü According
to them even stones have souls.
ü Plants
and trees have 2 jivas. Animals have 3 or more jives.
ü Jains
are permitted to eat things with 2 jivas only.
ü Eating
a thing with 3 jivas leads to the breach of basic law of non-injury.
ü Mahavira
preached in Magadhi, the language spoken by common people.
ü The
teachings of Jainism were recorded at a council conducted at pataliputra in 5
AD.
ü At
the time of the council jains divided into 2 sects. Svethambaras and
Digambaras.
***Mahavira
and Buddha both are important for the examination point of view. Read
carefully.*
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BUDDHISM:
ü Buddha
was the contemporary of Mahavira.
ü Born
in 563 BC. In a shakya kshatriya family in kapilavastu in Nepal.
ü He
attained knowledge or enlightenment at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree.
ü Delivered
first sermon at saranath in Benaras.
ü Passed
away in 483 BC at a place called kushinagara in Deoria district in UP.
ü Buddha
discarded vedic religion in its totality.
ü ARYASATYA
( 4 truths) enunciated by Buddha formed the basis for Buddhism.
ü They
are Suffering (Dukha) exists wherever life is there.
ü Next
is the desire is the cause of suffering. It leads to birth and rebirth.
ü Releasing
from the pain can be achieved only by abandoning the desire.
ü The
way out of this circle ie middle path.
ü The
guiding principle for this path are embodied in a series of precepts called the
eight-fold path (Astanga marga).
ü They
are Right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right meditation.
ü The
true follower of the astanga marga attains salvation or nirvana.
ü Attainment
of Nirvana was the chief objective of the Buddhism.
ü Both
Buddhism and Jainism are non-theistic in nature.
ü After
death of Buddha four councils were held.
ü 1st
at Rajagriha in 483 BC, in which discourse of Buddha was collected compiled and
embodied in pali. The literature is
known as Tripitaka. (Vinaya – dealing with the rules of the order), sutta –
collection of buddhas cermons, Abhidhamma pitaka – about preachers, princes,
rich , poor.)
ü The
jatakas deal with the stories of previous birth of Buddha were dealt in Sutta
pitaka.
ü 2nd
council at Vaisali in 383 BC.
ü 3rd
in pataliputra (250 BC).
ü 4th
during 1st AD in Kashmir. Here it was divided into Hinayana
(followers of the lesser vehicle) and Mahayana ( Followers of the graeater
vehicle).
ü According
to Buddhism Sanskrit was the religious language.
ü Bodisatva
means previous incarnations of Buddha.
ü Buddhism
disappeared from India in 12 AD.
ü Ambedkar
on October 14, 1956 embraced Buddhism.
THE MAURYAS (312 – 185 BC)
v Arthasastra
written by Kautilya or chanakya.
v Kautilya
was the Prime Minister M of Chandragupta Maurya.
v The
other source was Indica written in Greek by Megastanese.
v Megastanese
was the ambassador of Selucus Nicator.
Important
Kings:
·
Chandra Gupta Maurya
·
Bindusara
·
Ashoka
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CHANDRA GUPTA MAURYA
(SANDROCATTUS):
ü Chandra
Gupta Maurya was also called Sandrocattus.
ü Chandra
Gupta Maurya was the founder of the Maurya dynasty.
ü Under
the rule of Chandra Gupta Maurya the whole northern India was united.
ü Chanakya
was the minister of Nandas, who conspired with Chandra Gupta Maurya to
overthrow the last of the Nanda kings and occupied pataliputra.
ü Chanakya
was a professor at the University of Takshila (located in present day Pakistan)
and was an expert in commerce, warfare, economics, etc.
ü Chanakya’s
famous works include Chanakya Neeti,
Arthashastra and Neetishastra.
ü Chanakya
is also known by the name of Kautilya.
ü Chanakya
was also called Vishnugupta.
ü When
Chanakya was born he had a full set of teeth, which is a sign that he would
become a king or an emperor. But since he was born in a Brahmin family, it was
considered inappropriate. Thus, his teeth were broken and it was predicted that
he would make another person a king and rule through him.
ü Chanakya
was thrown out of the court of King Nanda as he was a blunt man and spoke his
mind clearly.
ü Chanakya
swore that he would take revenge.
ü Chanakya
comes across with Chandra Gupta Maurya and used him to take the revenge.
ü For
this he used to add little poison in the food of Chandra Gupta Maurya to make
him immune of poison.
ü Without
knowing this one day Chandra Gupta Maurya gave some food to his wife who was
ninth month pregnant.
ü But
the baby was taken out by chanakya. He was Bindusara.
ü Bindusara
had a minister SUBANDHU, who told Bindusara about the death of his mother. He
sent chanakya away. And after knowing the fact he called back chankya through
subandu. But subandu killed chanakya.
ü Chandra
Gupta Maurya negotiated with Selucus Nicator, the Greek viceroy of Alexander
who ruled over the area west of Indus.
ü Selucus
forced to concede eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area wet to Indus.
ü Selucus
sent Meganistanese to Chandra Gupta Maurya who lived there for quite long period.
ü Chandra
Gupta Maurya left only present Kerala, Tamil Nadu and some parts in North
India.
ü Subjugation
of Saurastra or kathiawad in the west is mentioned in the Junagadh rock
inscription of Rudradaman of 1st century AD.
ü Chandra
Gupta Maurya’s viceroy pushyagupta (vaishya) constructed famous sudarshan lake
(Gujarat).
ü Chandra
Gupta Maurya was a follower of Jainism.
BINDUSARA:
ü Son
of Chandra Gupta Maurya.
ü He
is referred to as Amitrochates.
ü He
had contacts with Seleucid king of Syria Antiochus I.
ü His
religious learning’s were towards Ajivakas while that of Chandra Gupta Maurya
was Jainism.
ü After
his death there was struggle among the sons for kingdom, and ultimately Ashoka
came to the power.
ASHOKA:
ü Ashoka
credited for conquering Kalinga (Orissa).
ü Ashoka
rock edict –XIII describes his conquest of kalinga which is said to have taken
place 8 years after coronation. i.e 260 BC.
ü Later
he turned towards Buddhism and adopted his policy Dhamma Vijaya.
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ü Titles of
Ashoka:
·
Samrat.
·
Devanampriya Priyadarsi
·
Dhammarakhit
·
Dharmarajika
·
Chakravartin
·
Magadhrajshretha etc.
ü His
successor was Dasaratha Maurya.
ü Sanchi
Stupa was built by Emperor Ashoka.
ü What
Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient
city of Harappa. The language used for inscription was the then current spoken
form called Prakrit.
ü The
last Maurya ruler was Brihadrata, was brutally murdered by the
commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga.
ü Pusyamitra
Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BC-78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part
of the Mauryan Empire
ü The
third Buddhist council at pataliputra was conducted by the monk
Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.
ü Tamraparni
(Sri Lanka) and now it is called Tamirabarani) and Suvarnabhumi (Burma). The
Suvarnadweepa was used for South-east asia.
ü Ancient
name for the Indian subcontinent is Jambudvipa
MISCELLNEOUS (MOURYAN EMPIRE)
ü Irrigation
cess was imposed to 1/5th of the produced. It was levied only on
irrigated soil.
ü Land
tax was called Bhaga, the main item of revenue levied at the rate of 1/6th
of the produced.
ü Share
cropping was existing.
ü State
collected ½ from here.
ü Pindakara
is a tax paid by those who practiced animal husbandry.
ü Hiranya
was another tax. The exact nature was not known.
ü Hiranya
means gold.
ü Pranaya
is a tax it means a gift of affection. (This was first mentioned by Panini but
elaborated in Arthasastra). This is equal to 1/4th of the produced.
ü Sri
of Arthasastra was identified as Sri Lakshmi.
ü The
most important than Jainism was the Ajivaka sect founded by Makkali Gosala.
ü Mouryan
has the biggest ever army for any empire.
ü Arthasastra
referred to “Mantri PARISHAD” means council of ministers.
ü “Mantris”
is a small group of ministers for urgent issues.
ü Sales
tax was called Sulka.
ü Land
revenue was called Bhaga
ü The
last Maurya ruler was Brihadratha. (181
BC).
ü The
aftermath of mauryans was indicated in Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Malavikagnimitra
of Kalidasa and Harsha charita of Harsha.